How does Islamic Law apply to non-Muslims within a Muslim country?

Sources

• ✓ 60:10 · Al-Mumtahana

  60:10 · Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall

  يَٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓا۟ إِذَا جَآءَكُمُ ٱلْمُؤْمِنَٰتُ مُهَٰجِرَٰتٍۢ فَٱمْتَحِنُوهُنَّ ۖ ٱللَّهُ أَعْلَمُ بِإِيمَٰنِهِنَّ ۖ فَإِنْ عَلِمْتُمُوهُنَّ مُؤْمِنَٰتٍۢ فَلَا تَرْجِعُوهُنَّ إِلَى ٱلْكُفَّارِ ۖ لَا هُنَّ حِلٌّۭ لَّهُمْ وَلَا هُمْ يَحِلُّونَ لَهُنَّ ۖ وَءَاتُوهُم مَّآ أَنفَقُوا۟ ۚ وَلَا جُنَاحَ عَلَيْكُمْ أَن تَنكِحُوهُنَّ إِذَآ ءَاتَيْتُمُوهُنَّ أُجُورَهُنَّ ۚ وَلَا تُمْسِكُوا۟ بِعِصَمِ ٱلْكَوَافِرِ وَسْـَٔلُوا۟ مَآ أَنفَقْتُمْ وَلْيَسْـَٔلُوا۟ مَآ أَنفَقُوا۟ ۚ ذَٰلِكُمْ حُكْمُ ٱللَّهِ ۖ يَحْكُمُ بَيْنَكُمْ ۚ وَٱللَّهُ عَلِيمٌ حَكِيمٌۭ

  O ye who believe! When believing women come unto you as fugitives, examine them. Allah is Best Aware of their faith. Then, if ye know them for true believers, send them not back unto the disbelievers. They are not lawful for them (the disbelievers), nor are they (the disbelievers) lawful for them. And give them (the disbelievers) that which they have spent (upon them). And it is no sin for you to marry such women when ye have given them their dues. And hold not to the ties of disbelieving women; and ask for (the return of) that which ye have spent; and let them (the disbelievers) ask for that which they have spent. That is the judgment of Allah. He judgeth between you. Allah is Knower, Wise.

• ✓ 4:24 · An-Nisaa

  4:24 · Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall

  ۞ وَٱلْمُحْصَنَٰتُ مِنَ ٱلنِّسَآءِ إِلَّا مَا مَلَكَتْ أَيْمَٰنُكُمْ ۖ كِتَٰبَ ٱللَّهِ عَلَيْكُمْ ۚ وَأُحِلَّ لَكُم مَّا وَرَآءَ ذَٰلِكُمْ أَن تَبْتَغُوا۟ بِأَمْوَٰلِكُم مُّحْصِنِينَ غَيْرَ مُسَٰفِحِينَ ۚ فَمَا ٱسْتَمْتَعْتُم بِهِۦ مِنْهُنَّ فَـَٔاتُوهُنَّ أُجُورَهُنَّ فَرِيضَةًۭ ۚ وَلَا جُنَاحَ عَلَيْكُمْ فِيمَا تَرَٰضَيْتُم بِهِۦ مِنۢ بَعْدِ ٱلْفَرِيضَةِ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ كَانَ عَلِيمًا حَكِيمًۭا

  And all married women (are forbidden unto you) save those (captives) whom your right hands possess. It is a decree of Allah for you. Lawful unto you are all beyond those mentioned, so that ye seek them with your wealth in honest wedlock, not debauchery. And those of whom ye seek content (by marrying them), give unto them their portions as a duty. And there is no sin for you in what ye do by mutual agreement after the duty (hath been done). Lo! Allah is ever Knower, Wise.

• ✓ Sunan Abu Dawud 15:136

  Sunni Sahih (per Al-Albani)

  Sunan Abu Dawud · Book 15, Hadith 136 · Narrated by Suleiman ibn Buraidah's father

  Whenever the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) appointed a commander over a detachment or army, he advised him to fear Allah privately and to treat the Muslims under him kindly. He said, 'When you meet your enemy from the polytheists, call them to one of three options or a truce. If they respond to one, accept it and cease fighting them. First, invite them to Islam; if they accept, accept it and stop fighting. If they refuse, call them to migrate from their land to the land of the emigrants, informing them that if they do so, they will have what the emigrants have and be subject to their duties. If they refuse and choose to stay in their land, inform them they will be like nomadic Muslims; God's laws will apply to them like true believers, but they will have no share in the spoils unless they fight alongside the Muslims. If they refuse again, call them to pay the jizya; if they agree, accept it and cease hostilities. If they refuse, seek help from Allah and fight them. When you besiege a fortress and they ask you to implement God's law upon them, do not accept, because you cannot be sure of God's ruling with them; instead enforce your own ruling and afterward deal with them as you see fit.'

• ✓ Al-Kafi 4:163

  Shia

  Al-Kafi · Book 4, Hadith 163

  Ali (peace be upon him) was knowledgeable, and knowledge is inherited. No scholar perishes except that someone remains after him who knows his knowledge, or by the will of Allah. — OR — After that, every morning Ya'qub called his callers from his dwelling a farsakh away: ‘Whoever wants lunch, let them come to Ya'qub!’ And in the evening he called: ‘Whoever wants dinner, let them come to Ya'qub!’ — OR — I asked about a woman having permission to give the adhan and iqama. He said, "No." — OR — A Muslim shall not be exacted with a dhimmi in killing or injuries, but the Muslim's crime against the dhimmi shall be taken according to the blood-money of the dhimmi which is eight hundred dirhams.