What is the fate of someone who died never having heard of Islam?

The fate of someone who died without ever hearing of Islam is a complex issue that has been addressed in both the Qur'an and various hadith.

The Qur'an mentions that Allah does not punish anyone without first sending a messenger to them. This principle is highlighted in Surah Al-Israa, where it states: Whosoever goeth right, it is only for (the good of) his own soul that he goeth right, and whosoever erreth, erreth only to its hurt. No laden soul can bear another's load, We never punish until we have sent a messenger. 17:15. This verse implies that those who have not received the message of Islam are not held accountable in the same way as those who have.

Furthermore, there are hadiths that elaborate on this topic. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ spoke about individuals who might present their case on the Day of Resurrection, including those who did not receive the message of Islam. He said: "When a human being is laid in his grave and his companions return and he even hears their foot steps, two angels come to him and make him sit and ask him: What did you use to say about this man, Muhammad? He will say: I testify that he is Allah's slave and His Apostle. Then it will be said to him, 'Look at your place in the Hell-Fire. Allah has given you a place in Paradise instead of it.' The Prophet added, 'The dead person will see both his places. But a non-believer or a hypocrite will say to the angels, "I do not know, but I used to say what the people used to say!" It will be said to him, "Neither did you know nor did you take the guidance (by reciting the Quran). Then he will be hit with an iron hammer between his two ears, and he will cry and that cry will be heard by whatever approaches him except human beings and jinns.' Sahih al-Bukhari 23:422.

Based on these teachings, it can be inferred that individuals who die without having received the message of Islam, including children, the insane, and those who lived in times or places where Islam was not known, will be judged with a level of mercy, as they did not have the opportunity to accept or reject the message. Allah's wisdom and justice ensure that each person's circumstances are taken into account.